HOW HIV INFECTION SPREADS ?

Scientists have identified three ways that HIV infections spread: sexual intercourse with an infected person, contact with contaminated blood, and transmission from an infected mother to her child before or during birth or through breast-feeding

A. Sex with an Infected Person
HIV transmission occurs most commonly during intimate sexual contact with an infected person, including genital, anal, and oral sex. The virus is present in the infected person’s semen or vaginal fluids. During sexual intercourse, the virus gains access to the bloodstream of the uninfected person by passing through openings in the mucous membrane—the protective tissue layer that lines the mouth, vagina, and rectum—and through breaks in the skin of the penis. In the United States and Canada, HIV is most commonly transmitted during sex between men, but the incidence of HIV transmission between men and women has rapidly increased. In most other parts of the world, HIV is most commonly transmitted through heterosexual sex.

 
B. Contact with Infected Blood
Direct contact with HIV-infected blood occurs when people who use heroin or other injected drugs share hypodermic needles or syringes contaminated with infected blood. Sharing of contaminated needles among intravenous drug users has been a primary cause of HIV infection in parts of eastern Europe and central Asia.
Less frequently, HIV infection results when health professionals accidentally stick themselves with needles containing HIV-infected blood or expose an open cut to contaminated blood. Some cases of HIV transmission from transfusions of infected blood, blood components, and organ donations were reported in the 1980s. Since 1985 government regulations in the United States and Canada have required that all donated blood and body tissues be screened for the presence of HIV before being used in medical procedures. As a result of these regulations, HIV transmission caused by contaminated blood transfusion or organ donations is rare in North America. However, the problem continues to concern health officials in sub-Saharan Africa. 

 
C. Mother-to-Child Transmission
HIV can be transmitted from an infected mother to her baby while the baby is still in the woman’s uterus or, more commonly, during childbirth. The virus can also be transmitted through the mother’s breast milk during breast-feeding. Mother-to-child transmission accounts for 90 percent of all cases of AIDS in children. Mother-to-child transmission is particularly prevalent in Africa.

 
D. Misperceptions About HIV Transmission
The routes of HIV transmission are well documented by scientists, but health officials continually grapple with people’s unfounded fears concerning the potential for HIV transmission by other means. HIV differs from other infectious viruses in that it dies quickly if exposed to the environment. No evidence has linked HIV transmission to casual contact with an infected person, such as a handshake, hugging, or kissing, or even sharing dishes or bathroom facilities. Studies have been unable to identify HIV transmission from modes common to other infectious diseases, such as an insect bite or inhaling virus-infected droplets from an infected person’s sneeze or cough.

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Cause of Aids

AIDS is the final stage of a chronic infection with the human immunodeficiency virus. There are two types of this virus: HIV-1, which is the primary cause of AIDS worldwide, and HIV-2, found mostly in West Africa.

Inside the body HIV enters cells of the immune system, especially white blood cells known as T cells. These cells orchestrate a wide variety of disease-fighting mechanisms. Particularly vulnerable to HIV attack are specialized “helper” T cells known as CD4 cells. When HIV infects a CD4 cell, it commandeers the genetic tools within the cell to manufacture new HIV virus. The newly formed HIV virus then leaves the cell, destroying the CD4 cell in the process. No existing medical treatment can completely eradicate HIV from the body once it has infected human cells. 

 
The loss of CD4 cells endangers health because these cells help other types of immune cells respond to invading organisms. The average healthy person has over 1,000 CD4 cells per microliter of blood. In a person infected with HIV, the virus steadily destroys CD4 cells over a period of years, diminishing the cells’ protective ability and weakening the immune system. When the density of CD4 cells drops to 200 cells per microliter of blood, the infected person becomes vulnerable to AIDS-related opportunistic infections and rare cancers, which take advantage of the weakened immune defenses to cause disease.

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Regulation of Abortion

Abortion has been practiced around the world since ancient times as a crude method of birth control. Although many religions forbade or restricted the practice, abortion was not considered illegal in most countries until the 19th century.

There were laws prior to this time, however, that banned abortion after quickening—that is, the time that fetal movement can first be felt. In 1803 England banned all abortions, and this policy soon spread to Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Throughout the middle and late 1800s, many states in the United States enacted similar laws banning abortion. In the 20th century, however, many nations began to relax their laws against abortion. The former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) legalized abortion in 1920, followed by Japan in 1948, and several Eastern European countries in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, much of Europe and Asia, along with the United States, legalized abortion.

 
An estimated 46 million abortions are performed worldwide each year, of which 20 million are performed in countries where abortion is restricted or prohibited by law. Illegal abortions are more likely to be performed by untrained people, in unsanitary conditions, or with unsafe surgical procedures or drugs. As a result, illegal abortion accounts for an estimated 78,000 deaths worldwide each year, or about one in seven pregnancy-related deaths. In some African countries, illegal abortion may contribute to up to 50 percent of pregnancy-related deaths. In Romania, where abortion was outlawed from 1966 to 1989, an estimated 86 percent of pregnancy-related deaths were caused by illegal abortion. In countries where abortion is legal, less than 1 percent of pregnancy-related deaths are caused by abortion.

 
A Legalization of Abortion in the United States

 
In the United States, the legalization of abortion began in 1966 when Mississippi passed a law permitting abortion in cases of rape. In the following four years, other states expanded the use of abortion to include cases in which a pregnancy threatens a woman’s health, the fetus has serious abnormalities, or the pregnancy is the result of incest (sexual intercourse between close relatives). In early 1973 the Supreme Court of the United States decided two cases, Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton, that effectively legalized abortion for any reason before the 24th week of pregnancy, the point when the fetus becomes viable. The ruling allowed individual states to enact laws restricting abortion after viability, except in cases when abortion is necessary to preserve the life or health of the woman.

 
In 1976 the Supreme Court recognized the right of pregnant girls under the age of 18, known as mature minors, to have abortions. Three years later the Court ruled that states may require the consent of one parent of a minor requesting an abortion. Parental consent is not necessary if a confidential alternative form of review, such as a judicial hearing, is made available for young women who choose not to involve their parents. The Court stated that a judge in a hearing must approve a minor’s abortion, in place of her parents, if the judge finds that the minor is mature enough to make the decision on her own. If the judge finds that the minor is not capable of making this decision on her own, he or she can decide whether the abortion is in the minor’s best interest.

 
Since these decisions, about 40 states have enacted and enforced parental consent or notification laws, although some laws have been contested in courts for years. In 1990, for example, in Hodgson v. Minnesota, the Supreme Court upheld a law requiring that prior notice be provided to both parents of a minor before an abortion is performed. In a similar case arising in Ohio that same year, the court upheld a requirement for notice or consent of one parent. In 2000, however, the New Jersey Supreme Court struck down a law requiring parental notice for unmarried girls under age 18.

 
Other state-imposed restrictions regulate who pays for abortions, where abortions are performed, and what information is provided to women seeking abortions. For example, in 1977 the Supreme Court allowed states to limit the use of Medicaid funds (government assistance for health care) for payment of elective abortions—that is, those abortions not medically required. A law upheld by the Supreme Court in 1980 restricted the availability of federal Medicaid funding for abortions deemed medically necessary. After that ruling, abortion payments for poor women in many states were limited to cases in which pregnancy threatened the woman’s life. Also in 1977, the Supreme Court allowed the city of St. Louis, Missouri, to exclude elective abortions from procedures performed in a public hospital.

 
In 1983 the Court found it unconstitutional to require that a woman considering an abortion be given information developed by the state about risks or consequences and wait 24 hours after receiving information before having the abortion. Similarly, in 1986 the Court struck down a comprehensive Pennsylvania law requiring that state-developed materials about abortion be offered to women undergoing the procedure.

 
Since the 1989 Supreme Court decision in Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, the Court has permitted several state-imposed restrictions to stand. The Webster case upheld a Missouri law that prohibits the use of public facilities or public employees for abortion and requires a physician to determine the viability of a fetus older than 20 weeks before performing an abortion. In the 1991 case of Rust v. Sullivan, the Court upheld a federal policy that prevented health-care providers who received federal funding from engaging in any activities that encouraged or promoted abortion as a method of family planning. President Bill Clinton later revoked this policy in 1993. 

 
In 1992 the Supreme Court decided Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey, a case in which the Court reaffirmed the central ruling of Roe v. Wade—that no undue burden on access to abortion should exist for a woman over 18 years of age prior to fetal viability. But the case also permitted states more freedom in regulating abortion. The Court overturned prior rulings, making it possible for states to again require that a woman be given state-developed information about abortion risks and consequences and wait 24 hours before undergoing the procedure.

 
In 1996 the Congress of the United States enacted a bill banning the practice of so-called partial birth abortions, also known as the intact dilation and extraction procedure. President Clinton vetoed the law because it failed to permit use of the procedure when a fetus displays severe abnormalities or when carrying a pregnancy to term presents a serious threat to a woman’s health or life. Over 30 states passed laws in the 1990s banning use of the procedure. 

 
In June 2000, in Stenberg v. Carhart, the Supreme Court struck down a Nebraska ban on partial birth abortion. The Court stated that the ban was an unconstitutional violation of both Roe v. Wade and Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey. But after Congress passed the Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 and President George W. Bush signed it into law, the Court revisited the issue in a 2007 ruling in Gonzales v. Planned Parenthood and Gonzales v. Carhart. This time, with Justice Samuel A. Alito, Jr. replacing the retired Justice Sandra Day O’Connor, the Court upheld the ban on the partial birth abortion procedure in a 5 to 4 decision. Under the law, physicians who perform the banned procedure could face fines and up to two years in prison. The law allows for use of intact dilation and extraction only in cases where the mother’s life is endangered without the procedure.

 
Since the Supreme Court ruling that legalized abortion in 1973, opponents of abortion have worked continuously to reverse the decision. They have lobbied state and federal officials to place restrictions on women seeking abortions or on individuals providing abortions. They have also held protests directed at clinics that perform abortions, and, in some cases, have accosted and obstructed patients and health-care providers at such clinics. In May 1994 the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act was enacted, which made it a federal crime to use force, threat of force, or physical obstruction to injure, intimidate, or interfere with reproductive health-care providers and their patients. That same year, in a case known as Madsen v. Women’s Health Center, the Supreme Court upheld the basic right to protest in peaceful, organized demonstrations outside abortion clinics. But the case upheld a Florida law that created a 36 ft (11 m) buffer zone around a clinic to ensure that demonstrations do not prevent access to clinics or disrupt clinic operations. In February 1997 the Court upheld buffer zones around clinics but struck down certain floating, or moveable, buffer zones around individuals approaching clinics.

 
The Supreme Court’s ruling in 2007 upholding the federal Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 was expected to spur further attempts to restrict abortion, if not overturn Roe v. Wade. Supporters of the right to abortion noted that the Court’s majority opinion in the 2007 decision represented the first time since the 1973 Roe ruling that the Court permitted a ban on an abortion procedure, effectively intruding on the privacy of a decision between a woman and her physician. Supporters of the ruling countered that the Court’s decision addressed the moral and ethical concerns put forward by opponents of abortion. They cited Justice Anthony Kennedy’s argument in the majority opinion that “the government has a legitimate and substantial interest in preserving and promoting fetal life.”

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The Prevalence of Aids

AIDS is one of the deadliest epidemics in human history. It was first identified in 1981 among homosexual men and intravenous drug users in New York and California. Shortly after its detection in the United States, evidence of AIDS epidemics grew among heterosexual men, women, and children in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS quickly developed into a worldwide epidemic, affecting virtually every nation.

The United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) estimates that the worldwide number of new cases of HIV infection peaked in the late 1990s with more than 3 million people newly infected each year. However, some regions of the world, especially Vietnam, Indonesia, and other countries in southeast Asia, continued to see an increase in the early 2000s. In addition, the number of people living with HIV or AIDS has continued to rise as the result of new drug treatments that lengthen life.

While cases of AIDS have been reported in every nation of the world, the disease affects some countries more than others. About 90 percent of all HIV-infected people live in the developing world. AIDS has struck sub-Saharan Africa particularly hard. Two-thirds of all people living with HIV infection reside in African countries south of the Sahara, where AIDS is the leading cause of death.

In countries hardest hit, AIDS has sapped the population of young men and women who form the foundation of the labor force. Most die while in the peak of their reproductive years. Moreover, the epidemic has overwhelmed health-care systems, increased the number of orphans, and caused life expectancy rates to plummet. These problems have reached crisis proportions in parts of the world already burdened by war, political upheaval, or unrelenting poverty.

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What causes an Anemia ?

There are three primary causes of anemia: (1) reduced production of red blood cells; (2) excessive destruction of red blood cells; and (3) extensive bleeding.

A Reduced Production of Red Blood Cells

Red blood cell production becomes impaired if the body has inadequate amounts of certain nutrients, including iron, vitamin B12, and folic acid, as well as the hormone erythropoietin, which is produced by the kidneys. Chronic illnesses, such as cancer, kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, and inflammatory bowel disease, may also lead to decreased red blood cell production.

B Destruction of Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells normally live for about 120 days before the immune system removes them from the body. The body compensates by producing new red blood cells. But if the destruction of red blood cells exceeds the body’s ability to produce new red blood cells, anemia results.

Abnormal destruction of red blood cells may be caused by an enlarged spleen, an organ that removes worn red blood cells from the body. The larger the spleen grows, the more red blood cells it traps and destroys. In some cases red blood cells are destroyed by a malfunction of the immune system in which antibodies attach to red blood cells, marking them for destruction. Red blood cells may also be destroyed by some genetic conditions, such as thalassemia, that cause defects in the structure or function of red blood cells.

C Bleeding

Excessive bleeding can cause dangerously low blood pressure as well as insufficient oxygen delivery to body tissues. Large amounts of blood loss may occur suddenly due to injury or surgery. In some cases, excessive bleeding may occur over time, such as from bleeding ulcers or tumors of the intestinal tract.

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There are so many benefits of reading , one of them is preventing Alzheimer's Disease !

Do you want to avoid the Alzheimer's disease ? It's easy ! Reading is the answer !

Reading is an activity that brings many benefits because by reading our knowledge will increase. Whether it is knowledge related to science and also just news or information. In addition, experts say that with a lot of reading then we would be separated from the brain disease. A researcher from the Henry Ford Health System, Dr. C. Edward Coffey, proving that just by reading the book one will be spared from the disease "Dementia". Dementia is a devastating disease of the brain tissue. When exposed to dementia, can be sure someone will be difficult to avoid senility. This occurs because the read to create such a buffer layer that protects the brain and replace changes.
Recent brain research has discovered the benefits of reading in growing dendrites, one of the components of the brain nerve cells or neurons. Read new words to stimulate the brain, because the brain likes to challenge and new things. Reading is an activity full of challenges and always bring a person to enter new territory.
Recognized or not, many people are smart and intelligent because of diligent reading. Reading also can make people more mature. Adults here means to have the mindset that no longer childish. By reading, people can look at every problem of life not as a burden, but a challenge that must be resolved. Problems in life is not viewed only from one side, but from different sides. People who look at problems from different sides of life is usually more prudent and wise in life.

However, it is very unfortunate that the reading interests of Indonesian society is still low. Taufiq Ismail a famous Indonesian writer says that. "We have become a nation paralyzed myopic reading books and writing. " This expression must have a very strong reason. And, true, our problem is the low interest in reading. If offered a book reading, not a few of us who reject the grounds do not have time to read. Our society is more like the medium of television from the book. Though it E. Jordan Ayan is also mentions that the television was still very behind compared toto the book . Television is a "passive media" that does not invite us to participate in learning or creative thinking. But this information does not come down to us because of our lack of reading.
Very different from the culture of reading Japanese society and other developed countries. Everywhere they always carry reading material. If there is spare time they are filled with reading. So it is not surprising that their science is more advanced than we are. Indonesian people prefer to girl talk and cultured oral. More of his daydream than do reading activities. This we can see from our own behavior as well as the people around us. In fact a lot of free time that we can use to read.
For example, while it is awaiting the departure of the aircraft, at the bus stop, terminal, even for people who have no health problems when reading on the vehicle, can utilize the time to read. Five minutes of reading can add insight to our knowledge. We can build motivation in us by extending the reading includes reading biographies of successful people.

One doctor from Saudi Arabia named Dr. Aidh Al Qarni in his book "Laa Tahzan" (Do not be sad) wrote 10 benefits of reading:

1. When busy reading, someone blocked entry into stupidity

2. Reading habits make people too busy to get in touch with the people lazy and not willing to work

3. With frequent reading, one can develop flexibility and fluency in spoken word

4. Reading helps develop thinking and clear thinking

5. Reading enhance one's knowledge and improve memory in understanding

6. With frequent reading someone can benefit from the experience of others, such as wise men follow the example of wisdom and intelligence scholars

7. With frequent reading, one can develop his abilities, both to receive and process science as well as to explore different disciplines and their applications in life

8. Confidence someone will increase when he read books that are useful

9. Reading helps a person to refresh your mind of clutter and save time for not in vain. With frequent reading, one can master a lot of words and study the various models of sentence

10. Furthermore, it can improve its ability to absorb concepts and to understand what it says on the line by line (to understand what is implied).

From several explanations above, we can draw the conclusion that the habit of always reading will bring huge benefits. Not only for ourselves but also for other people if we want to share my knowledge with them. I therefore invite the reader to turn the culture of reading all this anywhere and anytime there is a time for reading.

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source : DETIK HEALTH

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6 Foods that Deplete the Body in seconds and Minutes

Smoking

it's easy to be healthy ! Various threats to health can be found in everyday foods ranging from sugar, salt to bad fats. Each takes different times to cause damage ranging from a matter of seconds to minutes.

Damage to certain parts in the body can occur in a matter of hours, even minutes. The materials are usually consumed daily through food and drink will lead to damage, of course, if consumed in excess.

How quickly the damage occurs ? the following comparison :

1. Cigarettes : 3 seconds
To reach the lungs, cigarette smoke only takes about 3 seconds and directly stimulate the heart to work harder in pumping blood. Increased pressure due to excessive cardiac work can trigger heart attacks and strokes for those who have a risk.

2. Sugar : 2 minutes
Even before you swallow, the sugar has lead to damage to the tooth enamel due in 2 minutes can trigger the growth of bad bacteria in the oral cavity. Once ingested, 20 teaspoons of sugar can reduce the ability of white blood cells to eradicate the bad bacteria that cause disease only within 2-5 hours afterwards.

3. Alcohol : 6 minutes
Within 6 minutes, 1 liter of beer or 3 glasses of wine alcohol can cause brain damage despite the reversible nature of the alias is not permanent. If you continue to get drunk and done too often, then the damage will be permanent.

4. Salt : 30 minutes
Salty foods can lead to hardening of the arteries, veins alias in just 30 minutes after being swallowed. Another impact of the excess salt is absorbed into the blood vessel so that fluid pressure rises and increases the risk of stroke and heart attack.

5. Caffeine : 30 minutes
Half an hour after drinking coffee, pressure and blood flow to the muscles will increase so that it becomes more stamina because of the release of adrenal hormones. In contrast, blood flow to organs other than muscle would be reduced, thereby reducing its performance.

6. Bad fats : 45 minutes
Saturated fat content in cheese, biscuits and other foods can increase the risk of blood clotting in less than 1 hour. The impact of course is a blockage of blood vessels that can trigger heart attacks. The good news, unsaturated fats and omega-3 fatty acids in nuts and fish oil can neutralize the effects of saturated fat

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Why Cancer is Dangerous ?

Lung Cancer

When cancerous cells multiply, they form clumps called tumors. Tumors can interfere with important body processes. Cancer of the lungs, for instance, interferes with breathing. Cancer of the stomach interferes with digesting food.

Cancerous cells can also spread to other parts of the body. Then new tumors form. This spreading is called metastasis. Cancer that has metastasized is the most dangerous. When cancer attacks several parts of the body, it is hard to stop.

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What is Cancer ?

LUNG CANCER

Cancer—it’s scary word, and a scary disease. Cancer kills a lot of people all over the world. Only heart disease kills more Americans.

But there’s good news too. Millions of people who have had cancer are still alive. Doctors have learned a great deal about treating and preventing cancer.

What is Cancer ?

Cancer can attack any part of the body, including the lungs, shown here. Normal lung tissue is light pink in color, but cancerous lung tissue caused by smoking turns black.

Cancer is not a single disease. It includes more than 100 different diseases. They may affect any part of the body. But they have one thing in common. They are all caused by cells that are out of control.

All living things are made up of cells. An adult human body has about 30 trillion cells—that’s 30,000,000,000,000! Cells reproduce (make more cells) by dividing in half. In an adult body, about 25 million cells divide every second. That’s how the body heals itself.

Sometimes a cell goes out of control and divides over and over. And that’s what cancer is—unhealthy cells, growing and reproducing out of control. These cells are said to be cancerous.
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What is Osteoporosis ?

Osteoporosis, bone condition characterized by a decrease in density, resulting in bones that are more porous and more easily fractured than normal bones. Fractures of the wrist, spine, and hip are most common; however, all bones can be affected. Osteoporosis primarily affects women, who account for nearly 80 percent of all cases.

White and Asian women are the most susceptible, but women of other races are also at considerable risk. Other risk factors include low calcium intake, a thin build, inadequate physical activity, certain drugs, such as corticosteroids , cigarette smoking, alcohol, and a family history of the disease.

Osteoporosis occurs after middle age. In young people, bones are constantly broken down and reformed. The rate of bone formation exceeds the rate at which bones are broken down. After middle age, the rate of bone formation slows, causing the bones to gradually become thinner and more porous. Here, a portion of a bone showing signs of osteoporosis (right) is contrasted with a portion of a healthy bone (left). Bones weakened by osteoporosis are much more vulnerable to fracture than are denser healthy bones.

The most common form of the disease, primary osteoporosis, includes postmenopausal , or estrogen-deficient, osteoporosis (Type I), which is observed in women whose ovaries have ceased to produce the hormone estrogen; age-related osteoporosis (Type II), which affects those over the age of 70; and idiopathic osteoporosis, a rare disorder of unknown cause that affects premenopausal women and men who are middle-aged or younger. Secondary osteoporosis may be caused by bone disuse as a result of paralysis or other conditions, including weightlessness in space; endocrine and nutritional disorders, including anorexia nervosa; specific disease processes; and certain drug therapies.

Recent research has shown that the development of osteoporosis is also related to a gene that determines the type of vitamin D receptor (VDR) a person inherits. The VDR gene exists in two forms, one of which produces a receptor that stores calcium more efficiently than the other. People who inherit two copies of the more efficient VDR gene develop high bone densities. Those who inherit two copies of the less efficient gene have somewhat less strong bones.

While there is currently no cure for osteoporosis, it is preventable in most people. Preventive measures include maintaining a balanced diet rich in calcium and vitamin D, weight-bearing exercise, and avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol. Hormone replacement therapy can be used to prevent and treat osteoporosis. Drugs used in treatment include raloxifene, calcitonin, and alendronate. To monitor a patient’s response to treatment, many physicians administer bone scans to determine bone density one or two times a year.
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What is Vaccination ?

“You’ll just feel a little jab.” Ouch! That wasn’t too bad, and it could save your life. Most of us have had “shots” from a needle. These are usually vaccinations, and they are extremely valuable. They help protect us against diseases.

VIRUSES

Most vaccinations are given to protect against diseases caused by viruses. Viruses are germs, and they are extremely tiny. They infect (get into) your body, multiply, and make you feel sick. Chicken pox is one example of a disease caused by a virus. The chicken pox virus gets inside the body and multiplies. It causes a fever followed by a rash of itchy red spots.

WHAT ARE VACCINES?

A vaccine is usually a small amount of liquid that contains dead or weakened versions of a virus or other type of germ. Weakened viruses can still multiply within the body but cannot cause disease. Vaccines can also contain tiny amounts of harmful substances, called toxins, which are made by the viruses. But they don’t have enough toxin to make you sick.

Some vaccines are oral, which means you can eat them or drink them. However, the powerful digestive juices in your stomach would destroy most vaccines. So vaccines are usually given by needle.

BECOMING IMMUNE

Your body attacks and destroys the weakened virus or toxin in the vaccine before it can make you sick. In this way, you become immune to (protected from) the disease the virus causes. The vaccine enables the body’s defenses, or immune system, to recognize and destroy the virus.

To destroy the virus, your immune system produces special substances, called antibodies, in the blood. Antibodies are able to fight and destroy particular viruses. If the real virus later invades, the immune system can kill it very quickly, before it starts to multiply.

WHICH DISEASES?

Vaccination is carried out in many countries as a regular part of healthcare. Vaccines are usually given to babies and young children so that they are protected from diseases as soon as possible. Vaccines exist for many diseases, including chicken pox, measles, mumps, rubella, polio, diphtheria, tetanus, and whooping cough.

Some of these vaccines are given to almost everyone. Others are given only to people who are considered likely to get the disease, perhaps because of where they live or their age. Several vaccines may be given at the same time as a combined vaccine. For example, the MMR vaccine protects against measles, mumps, and rubella.

Some vaccines only make you immune for a few months or years. They include vaccines against typhoid fever, cholera, tetanus, and yellow fever. They may need a “booster” dose later to keep up the immunity.

PROBLEMS WITH VACCINES

Sometimes giving a vaccine to a person may cause health problems. These problems are known as side effects, and they can be serious. People who have certain illnesses and conditions are more likely to have side effects. So medical workers ask questions about health before giving vaccines. Once in a while, they advise people not to get vaccinated. Medical workers must balance the risks of catching the disease with the risks of possible side effects of vaccination.

CHANGING VIRUSES

Viruses can change, or mutate, over time. A vaccine against one strain of a mutated virus may not work against another strain. The flu (influenza) is one of these viruses that mutate into different strains. A new vaccine for the flu has to be developed every year.

Every now and then a new kind of germ appears. One example is HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which causes a disease called AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). No one knew about HIV until the 1980s. When new viruses appear, medical scientists try to develop new vaccines against them. It is a long and difficult process. But vaccination is one of our most powerful medical weapons in the battle against diseases.
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Why Mumps can occur? ( Part II )

HOW DO YOU GET MUMPS?

Mumps is “catching.” You get mumps from someone else who has the disease. You can give mumps to other people. You can pass the germs along even if you only have a mild case.

Mumps spreads in drops of saliva. The drops can spread by coughing and sneezing.

Once you catch the germ you don’t get sick right away. It takes 15 to 21 days for the signs of mumps to show up.

WHO GETS MUMPS?

Children from ages five to nine are the ones most likely to get mumps. Sometimes grown-ups get the disease. Mumps can be more serious in grown-ups.

Chances are that you will never get mumps. Mumps was once a common childhood illness. Now mumps is pretty rare in countries such as the United States and Canada.

Mumps is rare because there is a mumps vaccine that keeps you from getting the disease. Doctors have been giving children the vaccine since 1967. You usually get it as shot, combined with vaccines for other diseases such as the measles. Before the vaccine, more than 200,000 kids in the United States came down with mumps each year. Now, only a few hundred kids and grown-ups catch the disease each year.
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Why Mumps can occur?

If you stuffed your cheeks full of marshmallows, you might look like you had the mumps. Mumps is an illness that makes glands in your neck swell up. The glands are the ones that make saliva (spit).

 

WHAT’S IT LIKE TO HAVE MUMPS?

A mild fever, chills, sore throat, and a sick feeling in your stomach could be early signs of mumps. Once those glands in your neck start to swell, there is no doubt.

The swollen glands can hurt. It can be hard to chew or swallow. The swelling starts to go down after about a week. People with mumps are usually well after about 12 days.

Some cases of mumps are very mild. If you have a mild case of mumps, you may not even know it.

WHAT CAUSES MUMPS?

A tiny germ called a virus causes mumps. There are no good medicines for killing the mumps virus—or any other virus. Antibiotics don’t work against viruses.

If you get the mumps virus, you need to get lots of rest. You have to wait for your body to fight off the disease. You should stay away from other people if you have mumps so you don’t give them the disease. Once you get over mumps, you can never get it again.

To be continued ....
InsyaAllah will continue in the next posting.
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Diseases of Animals

hi readers, in this article a'll to tell you something about "Diseases of Animals" . hopefully helpful ! happy reading :)

I INTRODUCTION

Diseases of Animals, disorders that influence an animal's health and ability to function. Animal diseases are of great concern to humans for several reasons. Diseases can reduce the productivity of animals used to produce food, such as hens and dairy cows. Animals that are raised as food, such as pigs and beef cattle, that become ill may affect the economic well-being of many industries.

Some animal diseases can be transmitted to humans, and control of these types of diseases, known as zoonoses, is vital to public health. In the wild, animal populations reduced by disease can upset the ecological balance of an area. And, in the case of pets, prevention and treatment of animal diseases helps pets live long and healthy lives, enhancing the companionship shared by a pet and its human owner.

Animal diseases are characterized as infectious and noninfectious. Infectious diseases are caused by an agent, such as bacteria or a virus, that penetrates the body's natural defense mechanisms, while noninfectious diseases are caused by factors such as diet, environment, injury, and heredity. Sometimes the cause of a disease is unknown. An animal may also experience one disease or a combination of diseases at any one time.

To identify a disease, a veterinarian (a doctor who treats animals) first determines the animal's signalment—its species, breed, age, and sex. This information helps to identify a disease because some diseases are more prevalent in certain species, or a disease may preferentially affect one sex or age group. The veterinarian then gathers a complete history of the animal and its problem. This history includes the symptoms the animal is displaying and when they first appeared, as well as whether the animal has been exposed to something new in its surroundings or to other animals. The veterinarian gives the animal a thorough physical examination, which may include measuring its body temperature, listening to its heart, checking its pulse, and feeling its abdomen and lymph nodes. The veterinarian then creates a list of possible diseases that may be making the animal sick. The list may be narrowed by running diagnostic tests such as X rays, electrocardiograms, blood analyses, and bacterial or fungal cultures. Once the disease is identified, the doctor develops a treatment plan for the animal (see Veterinary Medicine).

II INFECTIOUS DISEASES

Many microscopic organisms naturally and peacefully exist in enormous quantities within animal bodies. For example, the multichambered stomach of a cow contains bacteria that help the animal digest its food. But many other microscopic organisms, known as pathogens, cause diseases in animals. Pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions—newly identified mutated proteins—and parasites. Pathogens are easily spread: an animal may consume food or drink something that has been contaminated with infected fecal material, for example. If the ground is contaminated by Salmonella bacteria, for instance, infection can travel from barn to barn on the soles of a farmer’s boots. Or an animal may be exposed while walking across contaminated ground. Some diseases are transmitted by biting insects; others are spread by sexual contact.

In addition to reducing the productivity of livestock, some infectious diseases pose a danger to humans. More than 100 zoonoses are recognized. Most cases are transmitted from animals that have close contact with humans, such as pets, farm animals, or rats. Examples of zoonoses include toxocariasis, a disease caused by a parasitic worm transmitted by infective eggs within canine feces; psittacosis, a respiratory disease caused by the bacteria-like Chlamydia psittaci and transmitted from infected birds; hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, spread by contact with rodent feces and urine; and rabies, a viral infection transmitted in the saliva of infected animals, typically foxes, bats, and raccoons, that causes damage to the brain and spinal cord.

As the human population grows and expands into wilderness territories, humans are coming into closer contact with other animals that carry pathogens dangerous to humans. Some of these pathogens are carried by insects, as in the case of yellow fever, spread from monkeys to humans via mosquito bites. Some hemorrhagic fevers, such as that caused by the Ebola virus, are recognized as zoonoses, but the exact transmission route from animal to human is still unknown.

A Bacterial Diseases

Salmonellosis is any disease caused by the Salmonella bacteria, characterized by septicemia and severe diarrhea. In its many forms, it is one of the major diseases of wild and domestic mammals, birds, and reptiles, as well as humans. Salmonella bacteria usually enter the body through the mouth, most commonly along with food or water contaminated by infected feces. Transmission also may occur through direct contact with an infected animal. In addition, salmonella bacteria can be spread by contact with objects, such as bowls and cutting boards, that have been contaminated by infected animal products, such as eggs or meat.

Anthrax is one of the oldest and most destructive diseases recorded in history. Caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis, anthrax can affect virtually all warm-blooded animals and humans. The onset of anthrax may be sudden and death may occur before symptoms are observed. In other cases, typical symptoms include restlessness, lethargy, appetite loss, fever, rapid breathing, and unsteady gait. The disease is contracted from contaminated soil, feed, or water. It can also spread when the skin is penetrated by insect bites or by objects contaminated with anthrax spores.

Leptospirosis, caused by spiral Leptospira bacteria, affects cattle, dogs, pigs, sheep, goats, and humans. Ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water are common sources of leptospirosis, and rodents may carry the infection. This infection causes kidney disease and destruction of red blood cells with potential anemia; it may also cause abortion. Brucellosis also causes abortion, as well as swelling of the reproductive organs in males. Caused by the Brucella bacterium, it occurs primarily in cattle, pigs, sheep, dogs, and goats, and may be transmitted to humans (see Undulant Fever).

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic disease of animals and humans, caused by bacteria of the genus Mycobacterium and transmitted by inhalation of droplets from an infected animal’s cough or sneeze, or by wound infection. TB infection causes lesions called tubercles to develop in certain tissues, such as the lung or liver. Symptoms include fever, emaciation, and progressive loss of strength.

Kennel cough is a respiratory disease of dogs that is caused by the bacterium Bordetella bronchiseptica, with or without the aid of various viruses. Symptoms include a harsh, dry cough, appetite loss, discharge from the nose or eyes, and lethargy. It typically spreads when dogs are grouped together, such as at dog shows or boarding kennels.

B Viral Diseases

Viruses are unable to grow and reproduce outside of the living cells from other hosts. Viruses attach and invade a cell and replicate, and then the newly created viruses destroy the host cell and seek out other cells to continue replication.

Feline leukemia is caused by the feline leukemia virus. Often fatal, it can seriously impair the immune system and, in some cases, cause the growth of life-threatening tumors. Spread from direct contact with an infected cat, symptoms of the disease include lethargy, weight loss, anemia, and fever. A cat may not appear ill until years after exposure.

Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by a virus found in the saliva of cattle, pigs, and other hoofed animals. Highly contagious, it is spread from direct contact with an infected animal. It may also spread in milk or in garbage that contains contaminated meat. Typical symptoms include blisters that appear on the mouth and feet; animals may become lame when their hooves degenerate.

Canine distemper is a highly contagious disease caused by the paramyxovirus, which is transmitted in discharges from the nose and eyes. Symptoms begin with fever, malaise, and nasal and ocular discharges and may progress to convulsions and other nervous system disorders. Parvoviruses affect dogs and in some cases cattle, pigs, and humans. Usually fatal if left untreated, canine parvovirus causes inflammation of the intestines, producing diarrhea, vomiting, fever, and loss of appetite.

C Fungal Diseases

A fungal infection typically develops slowly and recurs more frequently than a bacterial infection. Histoplasmosis, characterized by a chronic cough and diarrhea, is contracted by inhaling the Histoplasma capsulatum fungus, which grows in soil. In the Central United States histoplasmosis is the most widespread fungal disease diagnosed in dogs, although it also affects other animals. Ringworm, a common skin disease of many species, causes circular patches of hair loss and scaly, reddened skin. It readily spreads by direct contact with an infected animal.

Yeast, another type of fungus, grows in warm and moist places, such as the ear canals of dogs. It may cause otitis externa, an infection of the outer ear. The yeast Candida albicans is commonly found in the intestinal tract of birds and other animals. It may be the primary cause of disease, or it may be a secondary invader in an animal already sick with another infection.

D Parasitic Infections

Diseases caused by parasites are widespread in domestic animals and wildlife. Parasites may be internal or external. Internal parasites include Coccidia, a microscopic protozoal (single-celled) organism that causes diarrhea and extreme weight loss in many young animals.

Other internal parasites include the roundworm, tapeworm, and fluke. Larval roundworms can cause considerable damage to lungs and other organs in some animals. For instance, Capillaria worms may attack the lining of the digestive tract of chickens and turkeys; they parasitize the respiratory and urinary tracts of dogs. Adults of the heartworm Dirofilaria immitis, another roundworm, live in the heart of dogs and produce microscopic larval stages, which swim in the blood. Symptoms of heartworm disease include coughing, fatigue, and weight loss. If left untreated, an animal may experience heart failure. Tapeworms may have very damaging larval stages. In echinococcosis, the larval tapeworms may form large cysts in liver, lungs, and other organs of humans and animals.

Flukes may directly damage the liver, lungs, or intestines, or they may act as carriers of other disease agents, as in the case of salmon poisoning of dogs in which the fluke, encysted in the body of a salmon, carries a virulent rickettsial agent.

External parasites live or feed on the surface of the animal's body. This group includes bloodsucking insects, such as mosquitoes, gnats, some flies, fleas, and some lice. Some insects are bloodsuckers in larval stages, such as ear maggots of hawk nestlings. Others, including some larval flies and some lice, eat tissue. Great damage to the meat and hides of cattle is caused by larval flies such as the ox warble, which migrates through the tissues and, after boring breathing holes through the skin, leaves the body to reproduce. Bloodsucking flies can transmit parasitic blood protozoans and some viruses.

Lice are of two types, those with chewing mouthparts and those with sucking mouthparts. Lice cause irritation, carry disease agents, and may cause anemia. Fleas are all bloodsuckers, and may transmit larval tapeworms, roundworms, and other disease agents. The sticktight flea may kill young birds by excessive bloodsucking. Mites may be external bloodsuckers, such as the red mite of birds (it can also affect humans and other animals), or they may be internal parasites, such as the Sternostoma mites of the lungs and air passages of canaries and other birds. Ticks, larger than mites, feed on blood and can carry serious infectious agents such as the bacteria that cause Q Fever and Lyme disease, which can be transmitted to humans.

E Prion Diseases

Newly identified protein particles called prions have been found in the brains of animals that have died from diseases such as scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy, more commonly known as mad cow disease. How prions act is unclear, but scientists theorize that prions attach to normal proteins in the brain. Once attached, the prions cause the normal proteins to change into an abnormal shape, leading to progressive destruction of brain cells and death. Prion diseases are thought to spread by means of feed supplements derived from infected animals. In recent years, public health officials have been concerned about the possibility that prion diseases may be transmitted to humans. This happens when humans eat contaminated beef or organs, causing them to contract such rare neurological diseases as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.

F Prevention and Treatment

Controlling the spread of infectious animal diseases begins with isolating, or quarantining, animals with threatening infections, such as salmonella, to prevent further transmission. Many bacterial diseases can be treated with various antibiotics, such as penicillin and streptomycin. But as with all disease, prevention is more important than treatment, and a major activity for veterinarians is immunization of animals. Immunization commonly involves an injection of a weakened or killed pathogen for a specific disease that encourages the immune system to fight off infection. Many infectious diseases, including rabies, canine distemper, feline leukemia, anthrax, and brucellosis, can be prevented by immunization. In the case of severe outbreaks of infectious disease, public health officials may work with animal owners to destroy large groups of animals. This was the case in the early 1990s, when an outbreak of bovine spongiform encephalopathy triggered the slaughter of many beef cattle in Britain.

Transmission of animal diseases to humans is a constant concern of public health officials. To protect people from disease, veterinarians inspect food animals for wholesomeness; quarantine and examine animals brought into the United States from other countries; test animals for the presence of disease; and actively work to prevent and eradicate diseases that threaten human health.

III NONINFECTIOUS DISEASES

Even if it were possible, a world without pathogens would not be disease-free. Many animal diseases are caused by noninfectious factors such as an animal's environment, genetics, and nutrition. Heatstroke, for example, occurs when an animal is forced to endure high temperatures without access to water, adequate ventilation, or suitable shade. A common scenario involves an animal that has been locked inside a car without air-conditioning during hot weather. Conversely, extreme cold can lead to hypothermia or frostbite. Other environmental hazards include the vast array of products humans use to eliminate pests and weeds from homes, farms, and gardens. For example, rodenticide, poison used to kill rats and mice, can cause fatal internal hemorrhaging in any animal that ingests this toxic substance. Improper use of flea powders, sprays, dips, and collars can also cause illness. Automobile antifreeze is another well-known poison. Its sweet taste appeals to some animals, such as cats and dogs, but consuming only a small amount can result in death. Many plant species are also toxic to animals. Some, such as pokeweed and yew, commonly grow in pastures and yards.

Poor feeding practices can lead to diseases such as nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism, a condition involving the muscles and bones of dogs that is associated with an all-meat diet. Large, rapidly growing puppies that consume too many calories and too much calcium can develop hypertrophic osteodystrophy, a disease resulting in lameness. Cats need sufficient amounts of an essential amino acid called taurine in their diets. Without it, they may develop eye problems. Not enough iodine intake can cause a goiter, or enlargement of the thyroid gland, in cows, horses, and other animals.

Trauma is a leading cause of injury and premature death in animals, especially pets that are allowed to roam free outdoors. Many animals are hit by cars or bitten by other animals. Farm animals may be attacked by predators, or they may harm themselves on sharp fencing or discarded nails. Untreated wounds can become infected and cause permanent damage.

Hip dysplasia, a painful and debilitating skeletal condition, is a noninfectious disease caused in part by heredity. Certain defects of the heart or palate, the roof of the mouth, may also be inherited. Some animals are genetically predisposed to diseases such as generalized demodectic mange, a skin disease caused by mites and characterized by hair loss and scaling around the eyelids, mouth, and front legs.

An animal's immune system is designed to detect and eliminate invading organisms. Occasionally, however, it behaves as though the animal's own body were the attacker, and it destroys healthy tissue. Diseases caused by this response, known as autoimmune diseases, include pemphigus foliaceous, a skin disease of dogs, cats, and horses; and rheumatoid arthritis, a severe type of arthritis that involves inflammation of the joints. In the autoimmune disease hemolytic anemia, the animal's own red blood cells are destroyed by its immune system.

Cancer exists in all animals. It is classified as either benign—that is, relatively noninvasive and unlikely to return after treatment; or as malignant—that is, aggressive and likely to spread. Any organ or system can be affected, either directly or through metastasis—when cancer cells from one part of the body spread to other areas of the body. Some forms of cancer are more widespread in animals of a particular breed, age, or sex, and even individuals of a specific color. For example, cancer of the mammary gland occurs more often in female animals, while melanoma, or skin cancer, is the most frequent tumor of elderly gray horses, and lymphosarcomas, tumors of the lymph nodes, are the most common type of specific tumor in cats. The study of cancer, known as oncology, is a growing field in veterinary medicine.
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Colds and Flu

hi readers :) in this article i'll to tell you . something about "Colds and Flu" . hopefully useful . and enrich your knowledge . happy reading :)

You start sneezing. Your throat gets sore and scratchy. You have to blow your nose a lot. You don’t feel very well. Do you have cold? Or do you have the flu?

Colds and flu are illnesses caused by germs. They are both caused by germs called viruses. But they are caused by different kinds of viruses. Colds are often called common colds. Flu is short for influenza.

IS IT A COLD OR THE FLU?

Signs that you have a cold or the flu are called symptoms. The symptoms of a cold and the symptoms of the flu are slightly different.

The symptoms of a cold are sore throat, cough, sneezing, and a stuffy, runny nose. Colds usually do not cause a fever.

Flu symptoms are like cold symptoms, but the flu also causes chills, fever, and headaches. It makes you feel tired and achy all over.

A cold or the flu usually lasts about a week. Every once in a while they can lead to a more serious sickness, such as an ear infection or a lung infection called pneumonia.

CATCHING A COLD OR THE FLU

People once thought you could catch a cold from getting a chill in cold weather. They thought that wet feet or drafts of cold air could give you a cold.

We now know that germs cause colds and flu. The germs are passed from one person to another. They travel in coughs and sneezes.

More colds and cases of flu happen in cold weather because people spend more time together indoors when it’s cold outside. It is easier for germs to spread when people are close together.

IS THERE A CURE?

There is no cure for the common cold. People take medicine to help their sore throats, coughs, and runny noses. Doctors say that resting in bed is the best way to treat a cold.

There is no cure for the flu, either. Doctors can give medicine to make you feel better. Resting in bed and drinking lots of juice and water is the best way to treat the flu.

AVOIDING A COLD OR THE FLU

You can get a flu shot to help keep you from catching the flu. A flu shot, or vaccination, helps your body fight off flu germs if they attack. But it doesn’t always work. The flu virus keeps changing. When it changes, the old vaccine no longer works. Doctors have to keep making new vaccines. For this reason, you need a new flu shot every year. Sometimes the flu changes enough in a single year that you can still catch it even if you’ve been vaccinated.

There is no vaccine against the common cold because more than 100 different kinds of viruses cause colds. These viruses also keep changing.

One thing you can do to protect against cold and flu germs is wash your hands before you eat anything or touch your face. Your hands may pick up the germs from door knobs or other things touched by someone with a cold. Washing your hands thoroughly kills the germs.

You can also try not to spread germs when you have a cold or the flu. Use tissues when you sneeze. Cover your mouth when you cough. And wash your hands frequently to keep from spreading cold germs to others.
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Diabetes Mellitus

hi readers, in this article i'll to tell you something about "Diabetes Mellitus" . hopefully useful and can enrich your knowledge :) happy reading :D

I INTRODUCTION

Diabetes Mellitus, disease in which the pancreas produces insufficient amounts of insulin, or in which the body’s cells fail to respond appropriately to insulin. Insulin is a hormone that helps the body’s cells absorb glucose (sugar) so it can be used as a source of energy.

In people with diabetes, glucose levels build up in the blood and urine, causing excessive urination, thirst, hunger, and problems with fat and protein metabolism. Diabetes mellitus differs from the less common diabetes insipidus, which is caused by lack of the hormone vasopressin, which controls the amount of urine secreted.
In the United States, some 21 million people (7 percent of the population) suffer from diabetes mellitus. Every year, some 1.5 million people learn they have the disease. Diabetes mellitus kills more than 73,000 U.S. residents each year, making it the sixth leading cause of all deaths resulting from disease. In addition, diabetes is a contributing factor in many deaths from heart disease, kidney failure, and other conditions. Overall, experts estimate that diabetes contributes to about 225,000 deaths annually in the United States. In Canada, approximately 2.5 million residents (about 6 percent of the population) have diabetes mellitus. The disease ranks as the seventh leading cause of death in Canada, where it kills about 6,000 people a year. Diabetes and its complications contribute to about 25,000 deaths in Canada annually.
Diabetes is most common in adults over 45 years of age; in people who are overweight or physically inactive; in individuals who have an immediate family member with diabetes; and in people of African, Hispanic, and Native American descent. The highest rate of diabetes in the world occurs in Native Americans. More women than men have been diagnosed with the disease.
In diabetes mellitus low insulin levels or poor response to insulin prevent cells from absorbing glucose. As a result, glucose builds up in the blood. When glucose-laden blood passes through the kidneys, the organs that remove blood impurities, the kidneys cannot absorb all of the excess glucose. This excess glucose spills into the urine, accompanied by water and electrolytes—ions required by cells to regulate the electric charge and flow of water molecules across the cell membrane. This causes frequent urination to get rid of the additional water drawn into the urine; excessive thirst to trigger replacement of lost water; and hunger to replace the glucose lost in urination. Additional symptoms may include blurred vision, dramatic weight loss, irritability, weakness and fatigue, and nausea and vomiting. 

II TYPE 1 DIABETES

Diabetes is classified into two types. In Type 1 diabetes, formerly called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and juvenile-onset diabetes, the body does not produce insulin or produces it only in very small quantities. Symptoms usually appear suddenly, typically in individuals under 20 years of age. Most cases occur around puberty—around age 10 to 12 in girls and age 12 to 14 in boys. In the United States Type 1 diabetes accounts for 5 to 10 percent of all diabetes cases. In Canada, Type 1 diabetes accounts for about 10 percent of all diabetes cases.
Type 1 diabetes is a disease in which the body produces too little insulin or no insulin at all. In most cases, Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease, that is, a condition in which the body’s disease-fighting immune system goes awry and attacks healthy tissues. In the case of Type 1 diabetes, the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys insulin-producing cells, known as beta cells, in the pancreas. Scientists believe that a combination of genetic and environmental factors somehow triggers the immune system to destroy these cells. Scientists have so far identified 20 genes that play a role in Type 1 diabetes, although the exact function of these genes is still under investigation. Environmental factors, such as certain viruses, may also contribute to the development of the disease, particularly in people who already have a genetic predisposition for the disease. Type 1 diabetes also can result from surgical removal of the pancreas.
In addition to causing a buildup of glucose in the blood, untreated Type 1 diabetes affects the metabolism of fat. Because the body cannot convert glucose into energy, it begins to break down stored fat for fuel. This produces increasing amounts of acidic compounds in the blood called ketone bodies, which interfere with cellular respiration, the energy-producing process in cells. 

III TYPE 2 DIABETES

In Type 2 diabetes, formerly known as non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) and adult-onset diabetes, the body’s delicate balance between insulin production and the ability of cells to use insulin goes awry. Symptoms characteristic of Type 2 diabetes include those found in Type 1 diabetes, as well as repeated infections or skin sores that heal slowly or not at all, generalized tiredness, and tingling or numbness in the hands or feet.
Of the nearly 21 million people in the United States with diabetes, 90 to 95 percent have Type 2 diabetes. About 90 percent of all diabetes cases in Canada are Type 2. The onset of Type 2 diabetes usually occurs after the age of 45, although the incidence of the disease in younger people is growing rapidly. Because symptoms develop slowly, individuals with the disease may not immediately recognize that they are sick. A number of genes are involved in Type 2 diabetes. In addition, there is a strong relationship between obesity and Type 2 diabetes. About 80 percent of diabetics with this form of the disease are significantly overweight.

IV COMPLICATIONS

 
If left untreated, diabetes mellitus may cause life-threatening complications. Type 1 diabetes can result in diabetic coma (a state of unconsciousness caused by extremely high levels of glucose in the blood) or death. In both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, complications may include blindness, kidney failure, and heart disease. Diabetes can cause tiny blood vessels to become blocked; when this occurs in blood vessels of the eye, it can result in retinopathy (the breakdown of the lining at the back of the eye), causing blindness. Diabetes mellitus is the leading cause of new cases of blindness in people aged 20 to 74. In the kidneys, diabetes can lead to nephropathy (the inability of the kidney to properly filter toxins from the blood). About 40 percent of new cases of end-stage renal disease (kidney failure) are caused by diabetes mellitus. Blockages of large blood vessels in diabetics can lead to many cardiovascular problems, including high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke. Although these conditions also occur in nondiabetic individuals, people with diabetes are two to four times more likely to develop cardiovascular disorders.
Diabetes mellitus may also cause loss of feeling, particularly in the lower legs. This numbness may prevent a person from feeling the pain or irritation of a break in the skin or of foot infection until after complications have developed, possibly necessitating amputation of the foot or leg. Burning pain, sensitivity to touch, and coldness of the foot, conditions collectively known as neuropathy, can also occur. Other complications include higher-risk pregnancies in diabetic women and a greater occurrence of dental disease.

V DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

 
Diabetes is detected by measuring the amount of glucose in the blood after an individual has fasted (abstained from food) for about eight hours. In some cases, physicians diagnose diabetes by administering an oral glucose tolerance test, which measures glucose levels before and after a specific amount of sugar has been ingested.
Once diabetes is diagnosed, treatment consists of controlling the amount of glucose in the blood and preventing complications. Depending on the type of diabetes, this can be accomplished through regular physical exercise, a carefully controlled diet, and medication.
Individuals with Type 1 diabetes must receive insulin, often two to four times a day, to provide the body with the hormone it does not produce. Insulin cannot be taken orally, because it is destroyed in the digestive system. Consequently, insulin-dependent diabetics have historically injected the drug using a hypodermic needle or a beeper-sized pump connected to a needle inserted under the skin. In 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration approved a form of insulin that can be inhaled and then is absorbed by blood in the lungs.
The amount of insulin needed varies from person to person and may be influenced by factors such as a person’s level of physical activity, diet, and the presence of other health disorders. Typically, individuals with Type 1 diabetes use a meter several times a day to measure the level of glucose in a drop of their blood obtained by pricking a fingertip. They can then adjust the dosage of insulin, physical exercise, or food intake to maintain the blood sugar at a normal level. People with Type 1 diabetes must carefully control their diets by distributing meals and snacks throughout the day so as not to overwhelm the ability of the insulin supply to help cells absorb glucose. They also need to eat foods that contain complex sugars, which break down slowly and cause a slower rise in blood sugar levels.
Although most persons with Type 1 diabetes strive to lower the amount of glucose in their blood, levels that are too low can also cause health problems. For example, if a person with Type 1 diabetes takes too much insulin, it can produce low blood sugar levels. This may result in hypoglycemia, a condition characterized by shakiness, confusion, and anxiety. A person who develops hypoglycemia can combat symptoms by ingesting glucose tablets or by consuming foods with high sugar content, such as fruit juices or hard candy.
In order to control insulin levels, people with Type 1 diabetes must monitor their glucose levels several times a day. In 1983 a group of 1,441 Type 1 diabetics aged 13 to 39 began participating in the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT), the largest scientific study of diabetes treatment ever undertaken. The DCCT studied the potential for reducing diabetes-related complications, such as nerve or kidney disease or eye disorders, by having patients closely monitor their blood sugar levels four to six times a day, maintaining the levels as close to normal as possible. The results of the study, reported in 1993, showed a 50 to 75 percent reduction of diabetic complications in people who aggressively monitored and controlled their glucose levels. Although the study was performed on people with Type 1 diabetes, researchers believe that close monitoring of blood sugar levels would also benefit people with Type 2 diabetes.
For persons with Type 2 diabetes, treatment begins with diet control, exercise, and weight reduction, although over time this treatment may not be adequate. People with Type 2 diabetes typically work with nutritionists to formulate a diet plan that regulates blood sugar levels so that they do not rise too swiftly after a meal. A recommended meal is usually low in fat (30 percent or less of total calories), provides moderate protein (10 to 20 percent of total calories), and contains a variety of carbohydrates, such as beans, vegetables, and grains. Regular exercise helps body cells absorb glucose—even ten minutes of exercise a day can be effective. Diet control and exercise may also play a role in weight reduction, which appears to partially reverse the body’s inability to use insulin.
For some people with Type 2 diabetes, diet, exercise, and weight reduction alone may work initially, but eventually this regimen does not help control high blood sugar levels. In these cases, oral medication may be prescribed. If oral medications are ineffective, a person with Type 2 diabetes may need insulin doses or a combination of oral medication and insulin. About 50 percent of individuals with Type 2 diabetes require oral medications, 40 percent require insulin or a combination of insulin and oral medications, and 10 percent use diet and exercise alone. 

VI CURRENT RESEARCH

 
At present no cure exists for diabetes, and scientists are unsure of the exact cause, although researchers are investigating a combination of genetic and environmental factors. So far researchers have identified 20 genes involved in Type 1 diabetes, and they are working to determine each gene’s role in causing the disease. The inheritance patterns of Type 1 diabetes are complicated, with many different genes influencing a person’s risk. For instance, a gene known as DR plays a role in Type 1 diabetes. Two forms of this gene, called DR3 and DR4, are present in 95 percent of people with Type 1 diabetes. People who inherit DR3 alone develop diabetes at an older age and have antibodies that destroy insulin-producing beta cells. Those who inherit DR4 tend to develop diabetes earlier in life and have antibodies that destroy insulin. A person with both DR3 and DR4 typically develops diabetes at a very young age and has the highest level of insulin-destroying antibodies.
In 2000 researchers were surprised to find that a variation of a gene called Caplain-10, which is not involved in glucose metabolism, is associated with the development of Type 2 diabetes. One form of this gene produces a small amount of protein, and researchers are studying how this decrease in protein increases a person’s risk for diabetes. Other genetic studies indicate that certain genes cause a variation of Type 2 diabetes called maturity onset diabetes of the young (MODY), which develops in people under the age of 25. Although scientists do not yet understand how these genes cause MODY, the genes are known to be active in the liver, intestine, kidney, and pancreas.
Other scientists hope to identify the environmental factors that trigger Type 1 diabetes in people with a genetic predisposition for the disease. If they can determine what causes the immune system to attack the cells that produce insulin, they may discover how to prevent the condition from developing. For instance, studies suggest that certain viruses, such as coxsackie B, rubella, and mumps, may trigger an immune reaction against beta cells or in some cases directly infect and destroy these cells.
Researchers attribute most cases of Type 2 diabetes to obesity. Studies show that the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes increases by 4 percent for every pound of excess weight a person carries. Researchers are investigating the exact role that extra weight plays in preventing the proper utilization of insulin and why some overweight people develop the disease while others do not.
Research also focuses on transplanting a healthy pancreas or its insulin-producing beta cells into a person with Type 1 diabetes to provide a natural source of insulin. Some patients who have received pancreas transplants have experienced considerable improvements in their health, but positive, long-term results with beta-cell transplants have not yet occurred. In both types of transplants recipients must take drugs that suppress their immune systems so the body will not reject the new pancreas or cells. These drugs can cause life-threatening side effects because the patient’s body can no longer protect itself from other harmful substances. In most people with diabetes, these drugs pose a greater risk to health than living with diabetes. Scientists are also studying the development of an artificial pancreas and ways to genetically manipulate non-insulin-producing cells into making insulin.
New methods for accurately measuring blood glucose levels may improve the quality of life for many individuals with diabetes. New techniques include the use of laser beams and infrared technology. For example, a tiny computer using infrared light can be used to measure a person’s blood sugar level. The computer automatically delivers the reading to an insulin pump carried on the diabetic’s body that injects the appropriate amount of insulin.
Other advances include new drugs that control blood sugar. In April 2000 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved glargine, an insulin drug that needs to be injected only once a day. Sold under the brand name Lantus, this drug can be used by people with Type 1 diabetes, as well as by those with Type 2 diabetes who require insulin injections. And, as mentioned earlier, in 2006 the FDA approved a form of insulin that can be inhaled. Physicians have long known that some insulin-dependent diabetics fail to take the drug as often as needed because of the discomfort of injections. Doctors hoped the inhalant form of insulin would lead to better patient compliance.
A number of drugs have been developed to help people with Type 2 diabetes. Examples include acarbose, (sold under the brand name Precose), which controls blood sugar by slowing the digestion of carbohydrates; and metformin (sold under the brand name Glucophage), which controls liver production of sugar, causes weight loss, and reduces total cholesterol. Pioglitazone (brand name, Actos) and rosiglitazone (brand name, Avandia) are drugs that make the cells more sensitive to insulin. A study published in 2007 found that Avandia increases the risk of heart attacks. Soon afterward the FDA told the manufacturers of Avandia and Actos, which had also been shown to carry a heart risk, to add prominent safety warnings to the drugs’ labels.
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